How to readthe names and terms.
The chapters write Sanskrit, Pali and Tamil words in the Roman alphabet with a few extra marks, so that every sound is spelled one way. The marks look strange at first and take a few minutes to learn. After that, Kauṭilya and Ṛgveda say exactly how they sound.
The marks, and how they sound
A line over a vowel makes it long. A dot under a letter usually means the tongue is curled back. A letter followed by h is breathed, never a new sound: the th in artha is like the t-h in “hothouse”.
| Mark | Sounds | For example |
|---|---|---|
| a | short, like the u in “but” | artha, karma |
| ā ī ū | long: ā as in “father”, ī as in “machine”, ū as in “rule” | Gītā, Sūtra |
| e o | always long: e as in “they”, o as in “go” | Veda, yoga |
| ai au | as in “aisle” and “loud” | Kauṭilya |
| ṛ | a vowel, close to “ri” in “rich” in the north, “ru” in the south | Ṛgveda (Rigveda), Kṛṣṇa |
| ś ṣ | both close to “sh” | Arthaśāstra, Upaniṣad |
| c | always “ch” as in “church” | Cāṇakya (Chanakya) |
| h after a letter | a breath after it, not a new sound: th is t with a puff, as in “hothouse”, never as in “thin” | artha, Dhammapada, bhakti |
| ṭ ḍ ṇ ḷ | the tongue curled back to the roof of the mouth, as t, d, n and l sound in much Indian English | Kauṭilya, Basavaṇṇa |
| ṃ | a nasal on the vowel before it, often like m or ng | Raghuvaṃśa, saṃskṛta |
| ḥ | a light breath, echoing the vowel before it | duḥkha, namaḥ |
| ñ ṅ | ñ as in “canyon”, ṅ as in “sing” | jñāna (often said “gyaan”), saṅgha |
| v | between English v and w | Veda, Vēmana |
Tamil, Kannada, Telugu and Malayalam add a few
| Mark | Sounds | For example |
|---|---|---|
| ē ō | long e and o; these languages also have short e and o | Vēmana, Kūḍalasaṅgamadēva |
| ṟ | a firm, rolled r | Tirukkuṟaḷ (Thirukkural), Aṟam |
| ḻ | a sound between r and l with the tongue curled back, often written “zh” | Tamiḻ (Tamizh), Parimēlaḻakar |
| ṉ | an n with the tongue just behind the teeth | Iṉpam |
Familiar spellings
Newspapers, books and search engines often drop the marks. These are the same names.
- Tirukkuṟaḷ
- Thirukkural, Tirukkural
- Tiruvaḷḷuvar
- Thiruvalluvar
- Arthaśāstra
- Arthashastra
- Kauṭilya, Cāṇakya
- Kautilya, Chanakya
- Bhagavad Gītā
- Bhagavad Gita
- Kṛṣṇa
- Krishna
- Ṛgveda
- Rigveda, Rig Veda
- Upaniṣad
- Upanishad
- Manusmṛti
- Manusmriti
- Patañjali
- Patanjali
- Śāntideva
- Shantideva
- Hitopadeśa
- Hitopadesha
- Raghuvaṃśa
- Raghuvamsha
- Basavaṇṇa
- Basavanna, Basava
How references such as “3.35” or “10.191.2” work depends on the text; each text's page explains its own.
Words that don't translate
Some words carry more than any one English word can. The chapters keep them in the original with a gloss; this is what they mean, and the translation that most often misleads.
dharmaधर्म
What holds things together and what is right to do: duty, law, right conduct, and the proper nature of a thing. A teacher's dharma is to teach.
Not quite: “Religion”. Dharma is about conduct and order, and is used in matters a modern reader would call ethics, law or professional duty.
In the chapters Business Economics and Demand · Business Ethics and CSR · Organisational Behaviour · Values, Learning and Motivation · Workforce Diversity
svadharmaस्वधर्म
One's own duty: the work and conduct that fit one's place and nature (Bhagavad Gītā 3.35).
Not quite: “Follow your passion”. In the Gītā the idea was tied to the duties of one's social class; modern readers often take it as one's own role and abilities, which is a reading.
In the chapters Management and Its Principles · Business Ethics and CSR
arthaअर्थ
Wealth, means and purpose: the material side of life, and one of the four aims of life with dharma, kāma and mokṣa. The Arthaśāstra is the study of gaining and keeping it, for a household and a state.
Not quite: “Economics” or “money”. Artha also covers power, security and the prosperity of a realm.
In the chapters Business Economics and Demand · Compensation Management
karmaकर्म
Action, and the consequences that follow from it. Karma-yoga in the Gītā is the discipline of acting well.
Not quite: “Fate”. Karma is about action and what it sets in motion, not a fixed destiny.
In the chapters Management and Its Principles · Business Ethics and CSR · Values, Learning and Motivation · Groups, Teams and Leadership · Job Analysis and Design · Compensation Management
niṣkāma karmaनिष्काम कर्म
Action without craving for its fruits: doing the work fully, and not making one's peace depend on how it turns out.
Not quite: “Don't care about results”. The Gītā asks for full effort; what it lets go of is attachment to the reward.
yogaयोग
Joining, discipline, a way of practice. The Gītā calls it “skill in action” (2.50); the Yoga Sūtra defines it as stilling the mind (1.2).
Not quite: “Exercise” or “postures”. The classical texts barely mention postures.
In the chapters Management and Its Principles · Decision Making · Utility Analysis · Values, Learning and Motivation · Emotions and Stress · Engagement and Work-Life
lokasaṅgrahaलोकसंग्रह
Holding the world together: acting for the common good, so that others can follow a good example (Bhagavad Gītā 3.20, 3.25).
Not quite: “Social work” or “PR”. It is the reason the Gītā gives for a capable person to keep acting at all.
yogakṣemaयोगक्षेम
Gaining what one lacks and keeping safe what one has: welfare and security together (Arthaśāstra; Bhagavad Gītā 9.22).
Not quite: “Insurance”. It is a ruler's or provider's whole duty of care.
In the chapters Compensation Management
ṛtaऋत
The order of the world in the Ṛgveda: the regular course of seasons, ritual and right conduct. Later ideas of dharma grow from it.
Not quite: “Law of nature” alone. It is moral as well as natural order.
satyaसत्य
Truth, and being true: what is so, and speech and action that match it. “Truth alone triumphs” (Muṇḍaka Upaniṣad 3.1.6).
Not quite: “Honesty” alone. Satya is also reality itself.
In the chapters Communication · Business Ethics and CSR · Corporate Governance · Values, Learning and Motivation
ahiṃsāअहिंसा
Not harming any living being, in deed, word or thought; central to Jain, Buddhist and Hindu ethics.
Not quite: “Non-violence” in the narrow sense of not fighting. It reaches to speech, intention and all living things.
nītiनीति
Practical wisdom and prudent policy: how to get on, choose friends and govern well (as in the Hitopadeśa).
Not quite: “Morality”. Nīti is shrewd as much as good.
daṇḍaदण्ड
The rod: the state's power to punish and compel, which the Arthaśāstra says must be used neither too harshly nor too lightly.
Not quite: “Punishment” alone. It is the whole coercive authority of government.
In the chapters Decision Making · Organisational Behaviour · Interpersonal Behaviour · Growth and Diversification
aṟamஅறம்
Virtue and right conduct in Tamil thought; the first book of the Tirukkuṟaḷ.
Not quite: “Dharma” by another name. Aṟam grows from Tamil ethics and is often closer to goodness and fairness than to duty.
kāyakaಕಾಯಕ
Honest work, held by Basavaṇṇa and the Vīraśaivas to be itself a form of worship.
Not quite: “Hard work”. Kāyaka is any honest livelihood done with integrity, and it rejects ranking work by caste.